Anorganik kimyo
Download 5.87 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- 9-bob. D .I.M E N D EL E Y E V N IN G DAVRIY Q O N U N I VA ELEM ENTLAR DAVRIY SIST E M A S I
- 9.1. Davriy sistemaning tuzilishi
|
3. Q uyidagi reaksiyalarning qaysi birlari oksidlanish-qaytarilish reaksiyalariga kiradi: a) Z n + H 2 S 0
4 (suyult)= Z n S 0 4 + H
2 b) Z n + 2 H 2 S 0 4(konis) = Z n S 0 4 + S 0 2 + 2 H 20 d) Z n (O H ) 2
+ H 2 S 0 4= Z n S 0 4 + 2 H 20 e) F e 2
3 + C O = C 0 2 + 2F eO 0 F e 2 0 3 + 6HC1 = 2F eC l 3 + 3H 20 g) N a 2 C 0 3 + S i0 2 = N a 2 S i0
3 + C 0 2. Javobingizni asoslang va oksidlovchi va qaytaruvchilam i ko‘ rsating. 4 .
Quyidagi ion, molekula va atom larning a) faqat oksidlovchi; b) faqat qaytaruvchi; d) h am oksidlovchi, h am qaytaruvchi b o ‘la oladiganlarni alohida-alohida ajratib yozing: M g, C u 2+, C u +, C , C 0 2, C O , S iH 4, N H 4, N 2 H 4, P
2 H 4, N 0 2, N 0 2~, N O , N 0 3- , A s 0 33 , Sb3+, N a 2 B i0 3, Bi,+, P b 0 2, S n2+, Sn, Sb3+, S e 0 2, S, H 2 S 0 4, S 0 2, H 2 S e 0 4, C r3+, C r 0 2- , [C r(O H )4] - , C r 0 4 2, C r 2 0 7 2 , H C IO , C l", B rO ,-, Ю 3~, J2, J - , 0 „ O,2', K ,0 4, CL,, F2, C103- , M n 0 2, M n 0 4 , M n 0 42-, F e3+, C o 3+, C o 2+, F e 2+, N i2+, N i3+, F e 0 42-, P t4+,' P d2+, R h3+, C u, Ni. 5. Quyidagi disproportsiyalanish reaksiyalarini elektron balans usulida tenglashtiring: a) H N 0 2
3 + N O + H 20 b) T iC l 3
T iC l, + T iC l 4 d) K O H + C l 2 ^ KC1 + K C lO + H 20 e) K O H + C l 2 ^ K C 10 3 + KC1 + H 20 f) Se + K O H -> K 2 S e 0 3 + K 2Se + H 20 g) H 20 2 H 20 + o 2. 6 . Quyidagi molekulalaming ichidagi boradigan oksidlanish-qaytarilish reaksiyalarini elektron balans usulida tenglashtiring: a) N H
4 N 0
2 -> N
2 + H 20 b) N H 4
3 -> N 20 + H 20 d) К С Ю 3 -> KC1 + 0 2 e) A u ,0 3 -> Au + О , f) P b ( N 0 3) 2
-»■ PbO + N O , + 0 2 g) (N H 4 ) 2 C r 2 0 7 -> C r 2 0
+ N 2 + H 20 7. Quyidagi disproportsiyalanish va m olekulaning ichida boradigan reaksiyalarni yarim reaksiyalar usulida tenglashtiring: a) K 2
4 + H 20 -> K M n 0 4 + M n 0 2 + K O H b) P + K O H + H 20 ->• P H 3 + K H 2 P 0
2 d) K M n 0 4 + K O H -* K 2 M n 0
4 + 0 2+ H ,0 e) H C 1 0 3 -*■ C 1 0 2 + H C 1 0 4 f) S + K O H -»• K j S O
j + K2S + H 20 g) J 2
3 + KJ + H 20 8 . Quyidagi kislotali sharoitda boradigan reaksiyalarni yarim reaksiyalar usulida tenglashtiring: a) Mg + H 2 S 0 4(kons) -> M g S 0 4 + H 2S + b) Z n + H 2 S 0 4(kools) -> Z n S 0 4 + S + d) Cu + H N 0 3 -> C u (N O , ) 2 + N O + ... e) Sn + H N 0 3 -> S n 0 2 + N O + ... f) P + H N 0 3 -> H 3 P 0
4 + N 0 2 + ...
g) As + H N 0 3 -> H jA s 0 4 + N O + ... h) Bi + H ,S 0 4 ^ Bi 2 ( S 0 4) 2 + S 0 2+ ... i) J 2
3 -> H JO 3 + N O + ... j) Se + H N O 3 -> H 2 S e 0
3 + N O + ... k) As + H 2 S 0 4 -» As 2 0
+ SO , +... 1) H C I + Н С Ю 3 -> C l2+ ... m ) H gS + Н С Ю 3 -> S + H gC l 2 +
n ) K M n 0 4 + K N 0 2 + H
2 S 0
4 -> M n S 0 4 + K N 0 3 +
o) K B i0 3 + H C I -> B iC l 3 + C l 2 +
p) К з С г Д + F e S 0 4+ H 2 S 0 4 -> F e 2 ( S 0
4) 3 + C r 2 ( S 0
4) 3 +
q) P b 0 2 + KJ + H N 0 3 -> J
2 + P b ( N 0 3) 2 +
r) K N 0 2 + K2S + H C I N O + S + 9. Q uyidagi ish q o riy s h a ro itd a b o ra d ig a n reak siy alarn i yarim reaksiyalar usulida tenglashtiring: a) C l
2 + K O H -> KCI + K C 1 0 3 +
b) S + K O H -> KjS + K ,S 0 3 + d) P + B a(O H ) 2
P H
3 + B a (H 2 P 0
2) 2 e) Z n + К О Н + Н 20 -» K 2 [Z n (O H )4] + Н 2 f) K M n 0 4 + K N 0 2 + K O H K 2
4 + ...
g) B iCl 3 + SnC I, + N a O H -> Bi + N a ,[S n (O H )4] + h) N a F e O , + Cl ~2 + N aO H -> N a,FeO ’4 +
i) C l 2 + K O H -> KC1 + K CIO + j) N 2 H 4 + Z n + K O H -> N H 3 + K
2 [Z n (O H )4] k) K BrO + M n C l 2 + K O H -> K B r + M n 0 2 +
I) K M n 0 4 + N a 2 S 2 0 3 + K O H K 2 M n 0 4 + N a 2 S 0
4 +
m ) Z n + N a N 0 3 + N a O H + H 20 -> N a 2 [Z n (O H )4] + N H 3 n) Z n + K N 0 3 + K O H -> K 2 Z n 0
2 + K N 0 2 +
0) R e 0 2 + 0 2 + N a O H -> N a 3 R e 0
5 +
p) K M n 0 4 + Z n + K O H -» K 2 M n 0
4 + K
2 [Z n (O H )4] + q) C r(O H )3+ B r 2 + N a O H -> N a 2 C r 0
4 + N aB r + r) As 2
3 + J
2 + K O H -» KJ + K 3 A s 0
4 + H 20 s) C r 2
4) 3 + B r
2 + K O H -> K 2 C r 0
4 + K B r + t) Al + N a O H + H 20 -> N a 3 [A l(O H )6] + H 2. 10. Q uyidagi neytral sh aro itd a b o ra d ig a n reak siy alarn i y arim reaksiyalar usulida tenglashtiring: a) K ,M n 0 4 + H 20 -> M nO , + K M n 0 4 + ...
b) Cl 2 + J, + H , 0 -> H JO 3 + HCI
d) A sH 3 + N aC IO + H 20 -» H 3 A s 0 4+ N aC l e) N a 3
3 + A g N 0 3 + H 20 N a 3 A s 0 4 + H N 0 3 + Ag 0 SO, + T e 0 2 + H 20 -> Те + H ,S 0 4 g) K M n 0 4 + M n S 0 4 + H 20 M n 0 2
h) K M n 0 4 + N a 2 S 0
3 + H 20 -» M n 0 2 + N a 2 S 0
4 +
1) KjCTjO, + (N H 4)2S + H 20 4 S + C r(O H ) 3
+ N H 3 + j) H 2S + Br 2 + H 20 -> H 2 S 0
4 + k) C a + H 20 -> C a (O H ) 2 + H
2 1) S 0 2+ Br 2 + H 20 -> H B r + H 2 S 0
4 m) K
4 [F e (C N )6] + B r 2 -> K
3 [F e (C N )6] + K B r n) F 2
2 o) C l2+ H 20 -> H C I + Н С Ю p) CI 2
2 s o
4 q) F e (O H ) 2 + 0
2 + H 20 -> F e (O H ) 3
г) К С Ю 4 + T i 2 ( S 0
4) 3 + Н , 0 -> КС1 + T i 0 S 0 4 +
s) K C IO 3 + J 2 + Н 20 -> H J 0 3 + КС1 t) F e 2 ( S 0 4)3+ A sH 3 -> As + F e S 0 4 + H , S 0 4 11. Quyidagi reaksiyalarni yarim reaksiyalar usulida tenglashtiring: a) C u,S + H N 0 3(konIs) -> C u (N O . ) 2
+ C u S 0 4 + N O , + ... b) KJ + K N 0 2 + H 2 S 0
4 -> J
2 + N O + ... d) N a 2
2 0 3 + J 2 -> N a,S 4 0 6 + N a J e) H B r + K M n 0 4 -> M nB r 2 + B r, + 0 F e S 0 4 + K M n 0 4 + H
2 S 0
4 -> F e 2 ( S 0
4) 3 + M n S 0 4 +
g) N i(O H ) 2
+ N aC IO + H , 0 -> N i( O H ) 3
+ N a C l + h) Z n + H 3 A s 0
3 + H
2 S 0
4 -» A sH 3 + Z n S 0 4 +
i) N 0 2 + K M n 0 4 + H 20 -> K N 0 3 + M n O , + j) M n ( N 0 3) 2
+ N a B i0 3 + H N 0 3 -> H M n 0 4’+ B i( N 0 3) 3 +
k) F e S 2 + H N 0 3(konls) -> H 2 S 0
4 + F e 2 ( S 0
4) 3 + N 0 2 +
12. A gar К С Ю 4 a) xl or (IV ) o k s id g a c h a ; b ) erk in x lo rg a c h a ; d) x lo r ionigacha qaytarilsa, shu reaksiyalarda uning ekvivalentini ham da ekvivalent m assasini hisoblang. (Javob: a) 1,3 m ol, 46,2 g /m o l; b) 1,7 m ol, 19,8 g /m o l; d) 1,8 mol, 17,3 g /m o l).
oksidlash m um kin? (Javob: 0,134 g). 14. Kislotali m uhitda 20 ml 0,1 n K M n 0 4 eritmasi bilan necha gram m tem ir (II) sulfidni oksidlash m um kin? (Javob: 0,304 g). 15. Quyidagi reaksiyalar qay tarafga borishi mumkinligini ko'rsating. (O ksidlanish-qaytarilish potensiallari jadvalidan foydalaning). a) H 2
2 + HOC1 = HCI + 0 2 + H 20 b) H J 0 3 + H 2 0 2 = J 2 + 5 0 2 + 6 H 20 d) J 2 + 5H 2 0 2 = 2 H J 0 3 + 4 H 20 16. E ritm ad a te m ir (III) tuzini te m ir (II) tuziga a) kaliy brom id bilan; b) kaliy yodid bilan qaytarish m um kinm i? 17. O ksidlanish-qaytarilish reaksiyalarining asosiy turlariga m isollar keltiring. 18. Dorishunoslik amaliyotida keng qo'llaniladigan asosiy oksidlovchi va qaytaruvchilarga misollar keltiring. 19. K ^C ^O ,, K J va N a N 0 2 birikm alardagi xrom , yod va azo tning oksidlanish darajasini bxlgan holda qaysi biri faqat oksidlovchi, qaysi biri ham oksidlovchi, ham qaytaruvchi bo'lishi m um kin? R eaksiya ten g la m alarini yozib tasdiqlang. 20. O ksidlanish-qaytarilish reaksiyalarini io n -elek tro n usuli bilan tenglashganda koeffitsiyent topish nimaga asoslangan? Bu usulning elektron balans usulidan afzalligi nim ada? M isollar keltiring. 21. Quyidagi reaksiyalarni elektron balans va yarim reaksiyalar usuli bilan tenglang: F e S 0 4 + K ,C r20 7 + H 2S 0 4-> F e 2( S 0 4)3 + C r2( S 0 4)3 + K 2S 0 4 + H 20 H , 0 , + K M nO . + H ,S O . -> M nSO , + O, + K ,SO , + H ,0 2 2
4 2 4 4 2 2 4 2 N a N 0 2 + P b 0 2 + H 2S 0 4 -> P b S 0 4 + N a N 0 3 + H 20 22. Kislotali sharoitda oksidlanish-qaytarilish titrlash u ch u n kerak bo'ladigan 0,02 n li 500 ml kaliy p erm anganat eritm asini tayyorlash uchun necha g K M n 0 4 tuzidan kerak? M n 0 4_, ioni M n 2+ gacha qaytariladi. 23. Standart elektron potensial qiymatini hisobga olib, C a(O H )2 va Br2 orasidagi reaksiya ishqoriy sharoitda ketish-ketmasligini aniqlang. 9-bob. D .I.M E N D EL E Y E V N IN G DAVRIY Q O N U N I VA ELEM ENTLAR DAVRIY SIST E M A S I E le m e n tla m i b irin c h i m a rta sin fla sh g a b o 'lg a n u rin is h fra n su z o lim i A .L a v u a z y e v a Y a . B e rsiliu s t o m o n id a n a m a lg a o s h irilg a n . U la r b a r c h a e le m e n tla m i m e ta ll va m e ta llm a s la rg a b o 'lg a n ed ilar. N e m is k im y o g a ri D e b e m e y e r e le m e n tla m i o 'x s h a s h k im y o viy x o ssa la rig a k o 'r a b irla s h tirib e le m e n tla rn in g « tria d a la rin i« h o s il qildi. 1857 -y ild a in g liz O d lin g v a fra n su z S h a n k u rtu a e le m e n tla rn in g a to m m a s s a la ri o rtib b o ris h i b ila n u la m in g k im y o v iy x o ssa la ri o'z g arish id a davriylik borligini payqadilar. O 'tg a n a sm in g 60 - yillarida 64 ta k im y o v iy e le m e n t m a ’lu m b o 'lib , u la r q a to rig a o ltin , k u m u s h , te m ir, m is, o ltin g u g u r t v a b o s h q a la r k irg a n e d i. K e y in c h a lik a z o t, k islo ro d , v o d o ro d va b o s h q a e le m e n tla r k a s h f e tild i. 1864-y ild a N y u le n d e s «oktavalar» q o n u n in i o c h d i. B u q o n u n g a k o 'r a h a r b i r y e ttita e le m e n td a n k ey in e le m e n tla r n in g x o ssa la ri q a y ta rilish i k u z a tild i. N y u le n d e s e lm e n tla m in g en g a so s iy k a tta lig i sifa tid a u la rn in g ek v iv ale n t m assalarin i oldi. U o ‘s h a p a y td a m a ’lu m b o 'lg a n 64 ta e le m e n tn i y e ttid a n qilib sak k izta g u ru h g a b o 'lib c h iq d i. U b a ’z a n b ir k a ta k k a ik k ita e le m e n tn i jo y la s h tir ib , h a li y a n g i e le m e n tla r h a m o c h ilis h in i h iso b g a o lm a d i. L .M e y e r e ’lo n q ilg a n ja d v a lid a o ‘s h a p a y td a m a ’lu m b o 'lg a n 64 ta e le m e n td a n 4 4 ta s in i jo y la s h tir ib , u la rn in g a t o m m a s s a s i o rtib b o rish i v a v o d o ro d g a n is b a ta n y u q o ri v alen tlig i o rtis h ig a k o 'r a ja d v a lg a q o 'y ib ch iq d i. 1868-yilda L .M e y e r d a v rla r h a m k o 'rsa tilg a n y a rim u z u n k o 'r in is h d a e le m e n tla r ja d v a lin i c h o p e td i. B u ja d v a lg a v o d o ro d , b o r, in d iy , u r a n va k o 'p g in a b o s h q a e l e m e n tl a r k iritil- m a g a n e d i. B u ja d v a ld a 12 ta e le m e n tn in g jo y la n is h i n o t o 'g 'r i k o 'r s a tilg a n b o 'lib , b ir d a v rd a v o d o ro d va g e liy n in g jo y la n is h i m u la q o h iso b g a o lin m a g a n edi. 1 8 6 9 -y ild a ru s k im y o g a ri D .I.M e n d e le y e v e le m e n tla r n in g en g a so siy k a tta lig i s if a tid a u la r n in g a to m m assa si d e b h is o b la d i. U e le m e n tla rn in g b ir-b irig a o 'x s h a m a y d ig a n tab iiy g u ru h la r in i ta q q o s- la b , a to m m a s s a s in in g o 'z g a ris h ig a q a r a b e le m e n tl a r x o s s a la rin i davriy ra v ish d a o 'z g a ris h in i aniq lad i. S h u larg a a so sla n g a n h o ld a D .I. M e n d e le y e v e le m e n tla r d a v riy q o n u n in i q u y id a g ic h a t a ’riflad i: K im y o v iy e le m e n tla r v a u la r h o sil q ilg a n o d d iy v a m u ra k k a b m o d d a la r n in g x o s s a la ri s h u e le m e n tn in g a to m m a s s a s ig a d a v riy ra v ish d a b o g 'lq d ir. B o s h q a la r d a n fa r q li ra v is h d a D .I .M e n d e l e y e v g a lo g e n la r , is h q o riy m e ta lla r , is h q o r iy - y e r m e ta lla rin in g a t o m m a s s a la r in i o 'z g a ris h in i k o 'r s a tib , e le m e n tla r va u la rn in g b irik m a la ri x o ssalarin i d av riy ra v ish d a o 'z g a ris h ig a a lo h id a e ’tib o r b erd i. B u q o n u n aso sid a u e le m e n tla r a t o m m a ssa sin i o rtib b o ris h ig a a s o s la n ib d a v riy ja d v a l y a ra td i. 1871 - y ild a D .I .M e n d e le y e v d av riy s is te m a d a g i 17 e le m e n tn i d a v riy ja d v a ld a g i o 'r n i n i a to m m a s sa la ri o r tib b o r is h t a r tib id a n b o s h q a c h a b o 'ls a h a m o 'z g a rtird i. K e y in c h a lik b u tu z a tis h la r t o 'g 'r i ek a n lig i m a ’lu m b o 'ld i. D a riy q o n u n va e le m e n tla r d a v riy ja d v a lig a a s o s la n g a n h o ld a D .I.M e n d e le y e v o ltita e le m e n t h a li o c h ilis h i m u m k in lig in i k o 'r a b ild i, u la rg a b o 's h j o y q o ld ird i h a m d a u la rn in g x o s s a la r in i ta v sifla b b e rd i. S h u o ra d a u c h t a e le m e n t — sk a n d iy , g a lliy v a g e r m a n iy o c h ild i. K e y in c h a lik b o 'l s a q o lg a n e le m e n tla r h a m (te x n isiy , re n iy va p o llo n iy ) k a sf etild i. D a v riy q o n u n a s o s id a k e y in c h a lik y a n a 2 0 ta y a n g i e le m e n tla r o c h ilib , k im y o fa n in in g ja d a l riv o jla n ish ig a tu rtk i b o ‘ldi. D a v riy q o n u n va d a v riy s is te m a a to m tu z ilis h in i ja d a l riv o jla n ish ig a , a to m tu zilish n a z a riy a si esa dav riy q o n u n n i y a n a d a c h u q u r m a ’n o g a ega bo'lishiga sabab b o 'ld i. K eyinchalik elem entlarn in g tartib ra q a m i h a m c h u q u r m a ’n o g a eg a e k a n lig i va u e le m e n tla r n in g a t o m y a d r o s in i n g z a r y a d in i va a t o m d a g i e l e k t r o n l a r s o n i n i k o 'r s a tis h i m a ’lu m b o 'ld i. H o z irg i v a q td a D .I.M e n d e le y e v n in g e le m e n tla r d av riy q o n u n i q u y id a g ic h a t a ’riflan ad i: « E le m e n tla rn in g xo ssalari, b irik m a la rin in g shak li va x o ssalari u la rn in g a to m y ad ro la ri z a ry ad ig a d avriy rav ish d a b o g 'liq d ir» . D .I.M e n d e le y e v n in g kim y o v iy e le m e n tla rn in g davriy q o n u n i va davriy sistem asi kim yo fani rivojlanishida ju d a k a tta ah a m iy a tg a ega.
E le m e n tla r d av riy sis te m a s i d av riy q o n u n n in g g ra fik ta s v irid ir. H o z irg i p a y td a e le m e n tla r d a v riy s is te m a s id a 110 ta e le m e n t k e ltirilg a n . D .I .M e n d e le y e v n in g 1 8 6 9 -y ild a ta k lif e tg a n u z u n s h a k ld a g i ja d v a ld a d a v r la r b i r q a to rg a jo y la s h g a n ed i. 1 8 7 0 -y ild a D . I .M e n d e le y e v d a v riy s is te m a n in g ik k in c h i x ili q is q a c h a s h a k ln i e ’lo n q ild i. B u s is te m a d a d a v r la r q a to rla rg a , g u r u h la r b o 'ls a a s o s iy va q o 's h im c h a g u ru h la rg a b o 'lin g a n . H o z irg i p a y td a d a v riy s is te m a n in g 500 xili m a ’lu m b o 'lib , u la rn in g ic h id a en g k o 'p q o 'lla n iy o tg a n i D .I.M e n d e le y e v ta k lif e tg a n v a r ia n tla r h is o b la n a d i. Q is q a s h a k ld a g i d a v riy s is te m a n in g e n g a so siy k a m c h ilig i x o ssa la ri k e s k in fa rq q ila d ig a n a so s iy va q o 's h im c h a g u r u h e le m e n tla r in in g b ir g u r u h d a jo y la s h g a n lig id ir. S h u n in g u c h u n h a m b a ’z a n d a v riy ja d v a ln in g u z u n sh ak li k o 'p r o q is h la tila d i. B a ’z a n ja d v a ld a g i la n ta n o id l a r va a k tin o id la r ja d v a ld a a lo h id a q a to rg a jo y la s h tirilib , d a v riy s is te m a y a rim u z u n v a ria n tg a a y la n tirilg a n . D a v riy s is te m a d a x o ssa la ri o 'x s h a s h e le m e n tla r g u r u h la r g a b o 'lin g a n . E le m e n tla r d a v rla rg a h a m b o 'lin g a n b o 'l i b , d a v r la r ish q o riy m e ta lla rd a n b o sh la n ib tip ik m e ta llm a s la r b ilan tu g a lla n a d i. D .I .M e n d e le y e v n in g d a v riy ja d v a lid a y e ttita d a v r b o 'l i b , f a q a t b irin c h i d a v r d a ik k ita e le m e n t jo y la s h tir ilg a n (v o d o ro d v a g e liy ). Q o lg a n d a v r la r is h q o riy m e ta lla r d a n b o s h la n ib , in e rt g a z b ila n tu g a lla n a d i. 2 - v a 3 - d a v r la r k ic h ik d a v r la r h is o b la n a d i v a u l a r d a 8 ta d a n e le m e n t jo y la s h g a n . 4 - , 5 -, 6 - d a v r la r b o 'ls a k a tta d a v r la r d e y ila d i. 4 - v a 5- d a v r la rd a 18 ta d a n e le m e n t b o r b o 'lg a n h o ld a , 6 -d a v r d a 32 e le m e n t jo y la s h tir ilg a n . O x irg i 7 - d a v r tu g a lla m a g a n d a v r h is o b la n ib , b u d a v rd a u n d a h o z i r 2 4 ta e le m e n t k e ltirilg a n . B u d a v r tu g a lla n is h i u c h u n u n g a y a n a 10 t a e le m e n t y e tis h m a y d i. 6 -d a v rd a g i e le m e n tla r ta rk ib ig a 14 ta e le m e n t k iritilg a n b o 'lib , u la r l a n ta n o id la r d e y ila d i. B u e le m e n tla r l a n ta n d a n k e y in k e la d i g a n e le m e n tla r , u l a r o 'x s h a s h k im y o v iy x o ss a la rg a eg a. S h u n g a o 'x s h a s h 7 -d a v rg a 14 e le m e n t- a k tin o id la r k iritilg a n . B u e le m e n t- la m in g b a rc h a x o ssalari ak tin iy g a o 'x s h a y d i. B a ’z a n a k tin o id la m in g x o ssa la ri la n ta n o id la r g a h a m o 'x s h a b k e ta d i. E le m e n tla r d a v riy ja d v a lid a v e rtik a l jo y la s h g a n e l e m e n tl a r q a to ri k im y o v iy x o s s a la ri o 'x s h a s h b o 'l ib , u la r g u r u h la r d e y ila d i. G u r u h l a r a s o s iy ( A ) v a q o 's h i m c h a ( B ) g u r u h la r g a b o 'l i n g a n . D a v riy j a d v a ld a g u r u h l a r s o n i 8 ta g a b o 'lin g a n . B o sh g u r u h c h a e le m e n tla ri k ic h ik d a v rla rd a n , q o 's h im c h a g u ru h e le m e n tla ri k a tta d a v r la rd a n b o s h la n g a n . K o 'p c h ilik b o s h va q o 's h i m c h a g u ru h e le m e n tla r i o r a s id a k im y o v iy o 'x s h a s h lik va o 'z ig a xos ta f o v u tla r u c h r a y d i. B a rc h a e l e m e n tl a r ic h id a v o d o r o d o 'z ig a x os x o s s a g a e g a b o 'lg a n lig i tufayli u d a v riy ja d v a ld a h a m I g u ru h g a h a m 7 -g u r u h g a jo y la sh tirilg a n . V o d o ro d xossalari jih a tid a n m e ta lla rg a h a m o 'x s h a b k e ta d i, g a lo g e n la r b ila n b ir ik m a la r h o s il q ila d i. M e ta lla r b ila n h o s il q ila d ig a n b irik m a la rd a b o 'ls a , m e ta llm a s la rg a o 'x s h a y d i. I va I I A g u r u h c h a e le m e n tla r i ( V I I I g u r u h d a g i g e liy h a m ) s - e l e m e n tl a r , q o l g a n I I I —V I I I g u r u h c h a e l e m e n tl a r i p - o i l a e le m e n tla ri h is o b la n a d i. d - e le m e n tla r k a tta d a v rd a jo y la s h g a n , u la r q o 's h i m c h a (B ) g u r u h c h a e le m e n tla r ig a k iritilg a n .
L itiy d a n fto rg a q a ra b e le m e n tla r n in g m e ta llik x o ssa la ri k a m a y ib , m e ta llm a s lik x o ssa la ri o rtib b o ra d i. N o d i r g a z la r tip ik m e ta llm a s la r b ila n m e ta lla rn i a jra tu v c h i c h e g a ra h is o b la n a d i. B irin c h i d a v r d a g in a s h u n d a y q o n u n iy a t k u z a tilm a y d i. K a tta d a v rla rd a e le m e n tla rn in g x o ssalari k ich ik d a v rd a g ila rd a n k o ‘ra su st o ‘z g a ra d i. Download 5.87 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
|