Towards a General Theory of Translational Action : Skopos Theory Explained

7. General rules for translational action
(1) A translatum is determined by its skopos.
Trl. = f(sk)
( 4.)
+
(2) A translatum is an offer of information in a target culture and lan-
guage about an offer of information in a source culture and language.
Trl. = IO
T
(IO
S
)
( 3.)
+
(3) A translatum is a unique, irreversible mapping of a source-culture
offer of information.
Trl. ⊆ IO
T
× IO
S
( 3.9.)
+
(4) A translatum must be coherent in itself.
M
Trl.
c
Sit
R
( 6.2.)
+
(5) A translatum must be coherent with the source text.
(6) These rules are interdependent and linked hierarchically in the order
set out above.

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8. Taxonomy for a theory of translational
 
action
8.1 Preliminary remarks
The rules summarized in 7. are probably the only general rules for translational 
action. Consequently, all further rules are culture-specific. 
In Vermeer ([1978]1983: 48-61), we mentioned only three of them be-
cause the definition of translational action as a specific form of information 
offer – rules 2 and 3 – was not under discussion at that point. In any case, 
this definition of translational action may be considered more a description 
than a rule.
8.2 Models of translational action
The source unit of a translational action is always a text. A text is transferred 
at all levels (from the text level down to the phoneme/grapheme level). A 
hierarchy of levels is basically set by the fact that the text constitutes the 
source unit and therefore represents the highest level. This hierarchy can be 
changed based on the (intended) function of the translatum (e.g. obligatory 
rhymes in metrical discourse).
A text refers to a culture-specific state of affairs. As a translation of a text, 
a translational action is therefore per se a cultural transfer.
On the basis of these considerations, we can construct a model with various 
levels, each with its own degree of complexity. The degree of complexity chosen 
for a particular translational action depends, first, on culture-specific concepts 
of translation, second, on the skopos, third, on the text type or genre, etc.
(1) Translation with a (partial) transfer of the cultural background, i.e. a 
translation of both the verbal and cultural elements of a text (= most 
complex model);
(2) translation of the verbal elements, leaving the cultural background as it 
is, including, however, at least partly, a transfer of cultural values;
(3) linguistic transfer at text level, taking formal, syntactic, and stylistic 
phenomena into account, but disregarding cultural values;
(4) linguistic transfer of units below text level;
(5) transfer of basic linguistic units.
In current European translation practice, model (1) is mostly limited to 
advertising; model (4) is often justified with a need for ‘philological faithful-
ness’; model (5) is used in the translation of magical texts (think of the glossing 
techniques in Old High German).

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Katharina Reiß and Hans J. Vermeer
109
The models may also be mixed according to culture-specific rules.
For example: in modern productions of Shakespeare’s plays, actors 
may wear business suits, but their names are still Julius Caesar (in 
modern German translations: Julius Cäsar), Marcus Antonius and 
Brutus.